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Subject: theory -career (JACKSONVILLE STATE UNIV account)
Date: Sunday, February 04, 2001 9:52 PM
Record: 10
Title: Assessment in Career Counseling. ERIC Digest.
Author(s): Prediger, Dale J.
Publication Date: January 30, 1995
Descriptors: Career Counseling; Evaluation Methods; Self Concept; Test
Interpretation; Career Choice; Career Exploration; Career Guidance;
Career Planning; Careers; Evaluation; Self Evaluation (Individuals)
Identifiers: ERIC Digests; Person Environment Fit
Abstract: This digest focuses on the career counseling process,
specifically on the contribution of assessment procedures to career
exploration and planning. Because these career development tasks are
experienced by everyone, this digest addresses assessment for the many
rather than intensive, problem focused career counseling. The
following basic considerations are examined:
(1) Trait and Factor
Theory: The Foundation for Assessment;
(2) Self-Concept: The Basis for
Career Choice;
(3) Assessment: A Primary Means for Self/Career
Exploration;
(4) Transformation of Assessment Data: Requirement of
Helpful Assessment;
(5) Data-Information Transformation: Bridge to
Reality;
(6) Informed Self-Estimates: Key to Ability Assessment;
(7)
Comprehensive, Articulated Assessment: A Goal; and
(8) Development of
Possibilities into Realities: A Requirement.
Trait and factor theory
has been revitalized by career development theory. Recognition of the
importance of the self-concept in career exploration provides the
basis for a closer relationship between assessment and counseling.
(JBJ) Corporate Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services, Greensboro, NC. (BBB30992) Sponsoring Agency: Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. (EDD00036) Country of Publication: U.S.; North Carolina Language(s): English Clearinghouse: Counseling and Personnel Services (CG025967) Contract#: RR93002004 Report#: EDO-CG-95-18 Pagination: 4 Publication Type(s): ERIC Information Analysis Products (IAPs); ERIC Digests (Selected) in Full Text Availability Level: Available in paper and on microfiche Price: EDRS Price MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. EDRS URL: Retrieve Full Text from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service website ERIC#: ED389966 Database: ERIC
Assessment in Career Counseling. ERIC Digest.
OVERVIEW
"In choosing an occupation one is, in effect, choosing a means of
implementing a self-concept" (Super, 1957, p. 196). What might be
called "Super's Dictum" has an antecedent in ancient Greek thought:
"Know Thyself." It was formulated in the early days of the career
development revolution that eventually swept away
square-peg-square-hole thinking about assessment. Current thinking
regarding the role of assessment in career development and counseling
represents an extension of Super's Dictum and a revitalization of
trait and factor theory.
Since the content of assessment in career counseling (e.g., interests,
abilities, career certainty) is well-covered by other digests in this
series (also see Kapes, Mastie, & Whitfield, 1994), this digest
focuses on the process--specifically, the contribution of assessment
procedures to career exploration and planning. (Super's Dictum on
choosing an "occupation" encompasses the "trial occupational choices"
characterizing exploration and planning.) Because these career
development tasks are experienced by everyone, this digest addresses
assessment for the many (e.g., via career planning courses) rather
than intensive, problem-focused career counseling.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS
1. “Trait and Factor Theory: The Foundation for Assessment”
Assessment procedures used in career counseling have their roots in
tests used for diagnostic screening and personnel selection (hiring).
As a result, the “test’em and tell’em” approach to test use and the
focus of scores on arbitrary decision points (e.g., helping Pat choose
a career at 10:20 a.m. on Tuesday, March 17th) were major problems at
one time. Trait and factor theory was and continues to be blamed for
these problems. However, there is nothing inherently wrong with
assessing human traits. Indeed, assessment is part of human nature;
for millennia, we have “sized-up” strangers and acquaintances.
Misinterpretations and misapplications of trait and factor theory are
now widely recognized and there have been several recent attempts to
place trait assessment into the context of career development theory
(e.g., see Chartrand, 1991; Rounds & Tracey, 1990).
2. “Self-Concept: The Basis for Career Choice”
According to Super’s Dictum, an occupation gives one the chance to be
the kind of person one wants to be; hence, career choices are based on
self-concepts projected into career options. It follows that a major
task in career counseling is to elicit and inform self-concepts–not a
simple process (Betz, 1994) unless one prioritizes components
according to career relevance. Faulty self-concepts are likely to
result in flawed plans and choices. Herr and Cramer (1992) said it
this way: “The major concern in a career [development] model is the
clarity and accuracy of the self-concept as the evaluative base by
which to judge available career options” (p. 155).
3. “Assessment: A Primary Means for Self/Career Exploration”
Given today’s complex array of career options, one of the most
difficult developmental tasks persons face is the identification and
exploration of options congruent with their characteristics.
Assessment can provide focus to career exploration. In the process of
assessment and career exploration, counselees will develop insights
about themselves and the work world that will inform their
self-concepts. In a nutshell, the major role of assessment in career
counseling is “self/career exploration”–a complementary process.
4. “Transformation of Assessment Data: Requirement of Helpful
Assessment”
Assessment data (standard scores, percentile ranks, etc.) must go
through a series of transformations if they are to be helpful in
career counseling. First, data must be transformed into counseling
information–i.e., career options worthy of exploration. Next, a short
list of options must be transformed into action–i.e., self-evaluated
activities and experiences. Finally, self-evaluations and
self-concepts must be transformed into career plans. Because of the
research and technology involved (see below), counselors should
require that test publishers take primary responsibility for the first
transformation. Counselors and counselees share responsibility for the
other two.
5. “Data-Information Transformation: Bridge to Reality”
In a 30-year-old text on test interpretation fundamentals (many of
which are ignored today), Goldman (1971) described the following three
models for transforming assessment data into counseling
information–for “bridging the gap” between a score and its real-world
implications.
“Clinical interpretations: Bridge for those with time.” The
labor-intensive clinical interpretation model (see Goldman, 1971, for
specifics) is shaky at best–unless counselors are very well trained
and have a light load. It is often supported by little more than a
list of scores; a vague understanding of measurement error, “validity
coefficients,” and “hit rates”; specific knowledge about a few
occupations and a mystical reliance on counselor/counselee intuition.
While intuition can contribute to assessment for career counseling,
counselors should expect publishers of assessment instruments to help
them “bridge the gap” between scores and their implications.
“Success predictions: Bridge to nowhere.” Presumably, the prediction
model can forecast levels of occupational success. Presumably, a
counselor can say (for example): “Pat, based on your test scores,
chances are about 59 out of 100 that you will be moderately
‘successful’ as a counseling psychologist and 27 out of 100 that you
will be highly ‘successful. Now, as for flight attendant and
pediatrician,…” Unfortunately, research indicates that so-called
“actuarial methods” can never provide predictions of occupational
success for enough occupations and with enough precision to be of use
in career exploration (e.g., see Goldman, 1994; Prediger, 1974).
Nevertheless, the latest claim is that success predictions based on
general mental ability (formerly called IQ) can be provided “and
compared” across nearly all occupations. This is despite the facts
that: (a) “success” is defined differently from occupation to
occupation (b) defensible measures of level of success are often
unavailable (e.g., for counseling psychologist, pediatrician); (c)
predictor-success correlations are available for relatively few
occupations; and (d) when available, prediction errors are large.
Attempts to predict occupational choice are also unwarranted. Besides,
what counselor would want to say (for example): “Pat, chances are 73
out of 100 you will become a nurse, [etc.]“? According to Zytowski
(1994), the prediction model “is the failed relationship” (p. 222)
between tests and career counseling.
“Similarity estimates: Bridge to the work world.” The similarity model
(“you look like a person who”) can be used to survey the work world in
order to identify occupational options warranting exploration. (For
over 60 years, interpretations of the Strong Interest Inventory
Occupational Scales have been based on this model.) The goal of the
similarity model is “not” to predict level of success or to find the
“ideal career.” Rather, the goal is to say (for example): “Pat, here
are some occupations that attract people who are similar to you in
several important ways. You may want to check them out.” Research
shows that observed differences among career groups are of sufficient
magnitude to provide focus to career exploration (e.g., see Prediger,
1974; Rounds & Tracey, 1990; Zytowski, 1994). Counselors should expect
publishers of assessment instruments to provide them with an
interpretive bridge based on similarity model research. Improvised,
armchair “structured searches” should be questioned.
6. “Informed Self-Estimates: Key to Ability Assessment”
Unfortunately, test scores are seldom available for many work-relevant
abilities–e.g., sales, leadership/management, organization,
creative/artistic, social interaction. Too often, work-relevant
abilities that can’t be assessed by paper-and-pencil tests are
ignored. But career exploration based only on abilities for which
there are tests not only misses important abilities, it does not take
account of the powerful role of self-concepts in occupational choice
(recall Super’s Dictum). Ability self-estimates bring work-relevant
self-concepts to the attention of the counselee and the counselor.
Elsewhere, I have discussed how “informed” self-estimates of abilities
can be used to facilitate self/career exploration (Prediger, 1994). To
be accurate, self-estimates must be informed by experience–including
the ability “estimates” provided by test scores, if they are
available.
7. “Comprehensive, Articulated Assessment: A Goal”
Career development theory makes it hard to defend career exploration
based only on interests, only on abilities, or only on job values
(e.g., see Lowman, 1993). Nevertheless, some counselors still take a
piecemeal approach to career assessment–e.g., interests in Grade 9;
abilities 3 years later. Counselors may also face the problem of
interpreting interest, ability, etc. assessments based on different
norms, profile formats, and work world structures. Some publishers are
responding to these problems with comprehensive, articulated
assessment programs. Counselors should expect nothing less.
8. “Development of Possibilities into Realities: A Requirement”
One of the career counselor’s primary functions is to help counselees
develop career possibilities into realities–that is, to facilitate
personal growth (e.g., building the abilities needed for a preferred
career path). In conjunction with other information about the
counselee, assessment information can suggest where growth would be
helpful and how it can be effected.
SUMMARY
Trait and factor theory, (now “person-environment fit theory”) has
been revitalized by career development theory. Recognition of the
importance of the self-concept in career exploration provides the
basis for a closer relationship between assessment and counseling.
REFERENCES
Betz, N. E. (1994). Self-concept theory in career development and
counseling. “Career Development Quarterly,” 43, 32-42.
Chartrand, J. M. (1991). The evolution of trait-and-factor career
counseling: A person x environment fit approach. “Journal of
Counseling & Development,” 69, 518-524.
Goldman, L. (1971). “Using tests in counseling” (2nd ed.). New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Goldman, L. (1994). The marriage is over… for most of us.
“Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development,” 26,
217-218.
Herr, E. L., & Cramer, S. H. (1992). “Career guidance and counseling
through the life span” (4th ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
Kapes, J.T., Mastie, M.M., & Whitfield, E.A. (Eds. 1994). “A
counselor’s guide to career assessment instruments” (3rd ed.).
Alexandria, VA: National Career Development Association.
Lowman, R. L. (1993). The inter-domain model of career assessment and
counseling. “Journal of Counseling and Development,” 71, 549-554.
Prediger, D. J. (1974). The role of assessment in career guidance. In
E. L. Herr (Ed.), “Vocational guidance and human development” (pp.
325-349). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Prediger, D. J. (1994). Tests and counseling: The marriage that
prevailed. “Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development,”
26, 227-234.
Rounds, J. B., & Tracey, T. J. (1990). From trait-and-factor to
person-environment fit counseling: Theory and process. In W. B. Walsh
& S. J. Osipow (Eds.), “Career counseling: Contemporary topics in
vocational psychology” (pp. 1-44). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Super, D. E. (1957). “The psychology of careers.” New York: Harper &
Brothers.
Zytowski, D. G. (1994). Tests and counseling: We are still married,
and living in discriminant analysis. “Measurement and Evaluation in
Counseling and Development,” 26, 219-223.
—–
Dale J. Prediger, Ed.D., NCCC, is a Vocational Research Psychologist
with American College Testing, Iowa City, IA.
—–
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